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You need to know what you are doing. So before you do anything else, you've got to do some basic research. There are many different models for running businesses and universities and for governing cities and counties. They all have different structures and policy processes.
Even among similar institutions (like universities) the variety is enormous. For example, some cities are structured like the federal government and most states; they have administrative branches headed by powerful elected executives (usually mayors) who must approve policy and elected legislative bodies (although usually one body instead of two) which must pass it. But some have executives who have no formal role in adopting policy. In others, legislative power is split among one or more bodies, some of which aren't even elected.
Since there aren't one or two general models either for how institutions are organized or how they work, this guide can't tell you for sure what to expect. Instead, it goes over some of the things you'll need to find out, and some of the things you can do to get the information you need.
This section covers research on the process of getting a policy adopted. It covers what you need to know first, and how you might find out second.
The first thing you need to find out is who makes policy.
Although someone usually has final say, the answer is usually not one person,
like a mayor or a college president or one body, like a city council or a board
of trustees. The answer usually describes a process in which many officials and
several bodies play a part. The section titled Working with Boards, reviews most
of the steps in a typical city government process.
You need to find out what each of the officials and bodies involved in the process
is supposed to do -- what their jobs are generally and what they are supposed to
do in policy adoption in particular. This is important because it will help you
understand the different ways different people are likely to think about your
proposals -- auditors will think about it in a different way than Human Rights
Commissioners will -- and because it may help spot when someone is going beyond
his or her authority.
You need to know the sequence of the process and how a policy proposal moves
through it. Sometimes there are options on sequence -- you may be able to start
in any one of several commissions, your proposal could be assigned to anyone
of several committees -- and you need to know this so you can evaluate the options.
The section Working With Boards , lays out some of the possibilities with city
governments in more detail.
You need to know what it takes to move a proposal from one stage to another.
Sometimes, the rules say a proposal should be referred to an official,
but it keeps going to the next stage unless he or she stops it. Sometimes
the proposal will move forward only if the official approves it.
Most processes have both formal rules and informal rules, traditions and
practices which are not written down but which people generally follow.
Sometimes, the unwritten rules are observed more rigorously than the formal
rules.
You need to find out how officials get their jobs. Are they appointed, if so by
whom? Do they serve for terms or until the person who appoints removes them?
Which officials are supposed to represent people? Officials can represent
districts, geographical areas, or groups of people defined by shared characteristics
(alumni, union members, etc.). All of this is important to figuring out how to
lobby officials, and which endorsements matter most.
Some institutions, especially cities and counties, have unofficial "political"
structures. In some places, there are elaborate political party organizations,
with committees in every ward (usually a geographical subset of a district).
In others, particularly those where there aren't two viable political parties,
people organize through political clubs, or through unions, etc.
Finally, when you work for government policy, you need to find out the extent
to which voters can become directly involved in making policy. "Initiatives"
are laws that are proposed and passed by the voters. "Referendums" are elections
on whether to approve or repeal laws passed by legislative bodies. "Recalls"
remove public officials. Are any of these devices allowed? To minimize the
chance that one of these tools will be used to defeat or repeal your proposal,
you need to know at the start if they are available and how they work.
Find out who the political players are. At first, this looks easy. Once you know what the offices
are, find out who has each. But you need to go deeper. Not all persons who hold the same or
similar offices (like members of a city council) are really equal players in the process. Some,
because they are widely respected, are particularly effective legislators, or because they have
access to money and volunteers, may be far more important than others.
For many of the same reasons, individuals who are not formally part of the process at all may be
crucial players. Members of policy making bodies may defer to people in other positions, or
sometimes to people with no office at all.
Even where there is no strong tradition of informal political organizations, officials may defer to
people with whom they have worked a lot in the past, or people who have helped them in the
past. Organizations not formally a part of the process can also be crucial players. In a classic
"union town," important policy doesn't get made over the objections of organized labor.
In many parts of the country, religious groups wield important influence. Since many people
think of civil rights for LGBT people and domestic partnership as posing moral questions,
religious groups may be more important than usual. You need to know which religious groups
and which religious leaders are important.
Learn about the LGBT community's institutions. In some places, there is an elaborate LGBT
subculture, with retail businesses, professionals, bars, etc. all identified as LGBT, and with an
LGBT press, usually one or more local or regional weeklies or monthlies. Some towns have
LGBT community centers. In many towns there are LGBT religious groups, especially in the
more progressive churches, and LGBT civic, political and social clubs. Even in the least
developed LGBT communities, there are often interlocking social circles, large numbers of
LGBT people who see each other socially.
Spend some time finding out the civil rights history of your institution. At the very least, you are
likely to find things that happened in the past and comparisons with your proposal. You may be
able to use the history. If an important institution like a church took a leadership role in a past
civil rights campaign, you may be able to appeal to its pride in that battle to get support for your
proposal.
The best source of information is often someone who has been paying attention to the politics of
your institution for a long time. These observers tend to fall into three groups, each with its own
strengths. If you can, try to find someone in each group.
Observers associated with likely allies -- like a member of a local ACLU or NOW chapter -- are
valuable because they will be paying attention to issues connected to yours. They'll be
particularly helpful with figuring out who is likely to be an ally on you issue and who is likely to
be an opponent.
Inside observers -- like members of the Board or their staffers -- are valuable because they know
the process intimately. They should be helpful with both formal and informal rules and
structures.
Detached observers -- like reporters or some career bureaucrats -- are valuable
because they don't
have the interests of the first two groups. They are most likely to tell you about influences the
first two groups may be reluctant to acknowledge. Often, reporters for the alternative press --
weeklies or monthlies which identify themselves as offering views and perspectives other media
do not -- may be most willing to talk with you.
If you approach someone you don't know (and don't have a contact for) in any one of the three
groups, be forthright about why you want to talk with them. Being coy can make you an enemy
later. Often, people who retired from working in any of the three categories make great sources.
They often have more time to talk, and they often enjoy the process of reflecting on what they
used to do.
A few cities publish helpful guides which explain how they work. You can usually get a copy of
the institution's charter and basic rules. For cities, charters usually set out how the policy process
works in some detail, although they frequently make for difficult reading. City boards sometimes
publish their operating rules as well.
Business charters are usually called "Articles of Incorporation" and they rarely provide helpful
information. The corporate "By-Laws" will at least give you the Board's formal operating rules.
Universities are typically more like businesses than cities in terms of which documents are
helpful.
A good way to begin your research is simply to devour the local press or company newsletter. If
you follow a couple of local issues carefully, you are likely to pick up the outlines of the
structure, some idea about the informal structure and who is important in it, and the names of
possible sources in all three classes of observers.
Go watch the board in action. It will be easier to do this if you've already gotten a rudimentary
idea about structure and process. In any case, direct observation will quickly answer many
questions that reading about an institution raises. You'll also learn a lot about who the players
are and the subtle dynamics of the process as well.
If you can, find one or two policy proposals and follow them through the process. One good way
to get a practical knowledge of the mechanics is to get a proposal at the end and trace it back
through the process. Most boards publish calendars or agendas, and you can scan them to find a
promising proposal at the end of the line. Most boards have files with "dockets" for each
proposal which traces its progress. For most government institutions, these are open to the
public. The Board's clerk or secretary will often be happy to tell you how your board works.
Once you've traced a policy proposal back from the end, try to follow a couple of proposals from
the start. If proposals begin in a committee, go to committee meetings for a while until you see a
proposal to follow. If they begin with members of the board, they will usually be introduced at
Board meetings.
Finally, follow every election campaign as closely as you can. You'll not only find out where
board members stand on issues, you will also find out what organizations endorse which
individuals, and more important, which individual and group endorsements seem to mean the
most.
As you work to find out who plays a part in making policy, try to begin categorizing people and
groups as likely allies, likely foes, or in the middle. You can do this by asking helpful observers
where people stand, and by paying close attention while you read and listen. You may want to
pay particular attention to how the key individuals you have identified vote or speak on certain
issues.
>> Next: 5. Basics About the Campaign
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